Eddie sez:

Let's start off this sometimes controversial topic with a few answers:
You really should plot. If you think all those electronic gizmos in that fancy cockpit of yours make plotting unnecessary, see: Why the Pilot is the Last Line of Defense.
Everything here is from the references shown below, with a few comments in an alternate color.
2020-12-12
This used to be a pretty ease case to make because It once said so, right here:
Photo: "The Rule," from an out of date version of FAA Order 8900.1, Vol 4, Ch 1, ¶4-80
Click photo for a larger image
That language also once appeared in AC 91-70, in the days before that advisory circular had any of the alphabet appended to it. Now here is what the FAA order says:
Photo: "The New Rule," from an out of date version of FAA Order 8900.1, Vol 4, Ch 1, ¶4-80
Click photo for a larger image
So now the requirement simply says "systematic cross-checking" in accordance with AC 91-70 and it doesn't tell you when that is required.
If all you read was the current Oceanic and International Operations advisory circular, you would be led to believe plotting is optional:
[AC 91-70B, ¶6.4.8.2] Up to now the only recommended method of cross-checking aircraft position in the oceanic airspace environment was manual plotting on a chart. However, a panel of aviation industry and FAA personnel completed an Operational Safety Assessment of methods for cross-checking oceanic flight navigation. The panel determined that an alternative to manual plotting, by which aircraft position could be checked through use of aircraft FMS-driven navigation displays and indications, would provide for an equivalent level of safety.
[AC 91-70B, ¶6.3.1.11.1] Plotting your route on your chart will increase your situational awareness as you execute your trip through oceanic and remote continental airspace.
[AC 91-70B, ¶6.3.1.11.1] You should use a chart, of appropriate scale, to provide yourself with a visual presentation of your intended route, regardless of your type(s) of long-range navigation system (LRNS). Plotting your route on your chart will increase your situational awareness as you execute your trip through oceanic and remote continental airspace.
If you have to do a "table top" with the FAA — one where they are considering giving you the authorization to fly oceanic through LOAs B036 or B039 — they will ask you to plot, so you are going to have to know how.
In the old days — when we were entering latitude and longitude into an inertial navigation system that didn't understand named waypoints — the typical reason given for plotting was the one degree error.
People still make the one-degree error but we are more likely to hear about oceanic re-routes that crews missed or entered in error.
Just because you are doing everything "by the book" doesn't mean another aircraft's errors can't impact you. How is plotting going to save you from another airplane's error? Here is a scenario for you. Let's say you filed Mach 0.80 as did the airplane in front of you, but the airplane behind you filed M0.83. Shanwick Oceanic planned on all this by placing the minimum spacing between you and the lead aircraft and allowed extra space between you and the third. Now let's say there is an unforecast increase in the tailwind and all three airplanes start to miss their next forecast ETA. (You are early.) You and the third aircraft revise your ETAs, as required, while maintaining your filed Mach Numbers. The lead aircraft, however, slows down to avoid having to revise his ETA and there is a loss of separation between you and the lead aircraft. Shanwick will be asking for all three aircraft to provide their paperwork and having shoddy paperwork may implicate the wrong crew.
No matter the reason, I like to think of it this way. When you are flying domestically all of your airplane's wizardry is keeping you separated from other airplanes and air traffic control's radar is backing everything up. When you are flying oceanic you don't have ATC's radar to help you out. It is up to you to back up the airplane's computers.
You don't know every quirk of your FMS and sometimes that can bite you. For example, the Gulfstream GV FMS originally had a 100 waypoint limitation; that's a lot of waypoints. Well, no, it isn't. It is easy to have more than 100 when flying through Europe. One of our TAG Aviation pilots in 2005 was an old pro at flying from London to White Plains, over and over again. On one of his trips they departed Italy instead. He simply downloaded the flight plan and headed west. The crew didn't plot, didn't check the FMS, and ran out of waypoints at 30° West longitude. At that point, the airplane turned directly to White Plains. How do you spell Gross Navigational Error? The North Atlantic powers that be referred the case to the FAA who referred the case to our standards group. The pilots in question did not fare well. Plotting would have saved them.
As we shall see later on, there are other methods that make all of this very easy, but you should know how to plot the old fashioned way because (a) the FAA will expect you to demonstrate if you are applying for the necessary LOA, and (b) it will help you understand what your automatic methods are doing and to detect any errors from those systems.
[AC 91-70B, ¶6.3.1.11.2] Your chart should include, at a minimum:
Note: For certificated operators, if OpSpec/MSpec A061 has been issued authorizing use of an Electronic Flight Bag (EFB) and the principal inspector (PI) has authorized “interactive plotting for oceanic and remote continental navigation,” the EFB application may be used in place of a paper plotting/orientation chart. The current edition of AC 120-76, Guidelines for the Certification, Airworthiness, and Operational Approval of Electronic Flight Bags, provides guidance for operators to develop associated EFB procedures. For part 91 operators, an EFB may be used, provided the criteria and considerations of the current edition of AC 91-78, Use of Class 1 or Class 2 Electronic Flight Bag (EFB), are observed.
Apart from saying the chart should be north up, must be based on WGS-84 and mean sea level, the chart printers are pretty much given discretion on how to print their plotting charts.
Figure: Plotting chart layout, (Eddie's notes)
There are some basic guidelines you should know for the chart you are using:
More about this: Navigation: Coordinates.
There are many techniques on how to do this correctly, here is mine:
Figure: Position plotting example, (Eddie's notes)
Figure: Position plotting example, (Eddie's notes)
For a tutorial on headings, courses, variation, and the like, see: Navigation - Direction.
Part of the plotting process is to check the courses in your FMS (which are almost always in Magnetic) against those on your charts (which are in True). To convert from True to Magnetic you need Variation.
Figure: Variation, (AFM 51-37, page 1-13)
[AFM 51-37, page 1-12.] The magnetic compass points to magnetic north. The angular difference between true and magnetic north is known as variation and it changes for different locations on the earth. Variation must be considered when converting true course, true headings, or true winds to magnetic direction.
If you need to convert, the formula is:
True + Variation = Magnetic
Where West Variation is positive and East Variation is negative
If, for example, you measure a True course of 090 on the chart and the nearest line of Variation is 10° East, the Magnetic course will be 090 - 10 = 080° (Because you subtract East Variation.)
If you don't have a paper chart, you may not find variation on the electronic chart. In JeppFD, for example, you need to select "VFR" from the chart type (left side of the accompanying photo), select the "Interstate 25" sign (right side of the accompanying photo), and zoom down to a fairly small scale. This works just about everywhere in the world except the North Atlantic, where variation magically disappears. For those of you without JeppFD and even for JeppFD users over the North Atlantic, your FMS should display variation for each waypoint.
Your FMS needs a database of worldwide magnetic variation and should be able to find a page that gives you access to that database. In a PlaneView cockpit (G450, G550), select "NAV" and "WPT DATABASE" and enter the point you want the variation. In the example photo, we see the variation is 14° West at 51°N 30° W.
Figure: Jeppesen Plotter, (Eddie's collection)
A plotter is nothing more than a circular instrument designed to give angular differences between lines. A navigation plotter, such as the Jeppesen model shown, will typically have a hole in the center of a compass rose. To use:
Note: You will have two choices aligned with the line of longitude, 085° and 275° in our example. In most cases it will be the number on top, but when dealing with courses near vertical it can be confusing. Always remember to give your answer a common sense check. In our example, we are headed to Europe and the answer should be generally easterly.
Figure: Dividers, step 1, (Eddie's collection)
[AFM 51-40, Page 5-8.]
If you have a set of dividers and a flat surface you aren't afraid to scratch, find the distance between waypoints is quite easy. First, place the points of the dividers on the start and end waypoints.
Figure: Dividers, step 2, (Eddie' collection)
Next, find a line of longitude near the course line. It is important to use a line of longitude about the same latitude as the course, since these will change over great distances. Each degree of latitude equals 60 nautical miles.
Figure: Post It Measuring Tool, (Eddie's notes)
If you don't have a set of dividers — do you really want to have such a sharp instrument in the cockpit? — you can construct your own with a PostIt note or other straight-edged paper. You will be accurate within a nautical mile if you do it this way:
Note: You can also determine the distance using a set of "10 Degree Tables," where we would see the exact distance is actually 369 nautical miles. (Our PostIt note was off by 1 nautical mile, or had an error rate of 0.27 percent, not bad.
More about this: 10 Degree Tables.
Figure: Starting vs Mid vs Ending Points, (Eddie's notes)
Your plotting chart is based on a Lambert Conformal projection, the lines of longitude converge near the poles. Except for the equator, the lines of latitude are not straight, they curve toward the equator. The measurement of your true course depends on where you place the center of your plotter and it does make a difference. In the figure shown, flying from 33°N 160°W to 33°N 150°W should, intuitively, require a 090° true course. The actual course, however, depends on what you want: the starting, mid, or ending course.
Most flight planning services offer either the starting or midpoint courses. Some pilots want to know what their initial course will be, others want the average course on the entire leg. It is a matter of personal preference.
I prefer using the starting course, since that is what the FMS will be showing prior to crossing the waypoint. (Following waypoint passage the course will update to reflect the "current" great circle route to the next waypoint. This course will constantly update as you progress, only reaching the midpoint course when you are actually at the midpoint.)
More about this: Navigation: Initial vs. Midpoint Course.
True Course plus Variation equals Magnetic Course . . .
Figure: Variation Example, (Eddie's notes)
To determine the magnetic course, you will need to add or subtract the variation:
TC + West Variation = MC
TC - East Variation = MC
In our example, it appears our midpoint is very close to the "16°W" line of variation and no interpolation is necessary. Based on this we add 16 to our 270 true course and verify that our FMS and flight plan show a 286° magnetic course plus or minus a few degrees.
For a tutorial on magnetic variation, see: Navigation - Direction.
Note: It is not uncommon to find differences of 2 or 3 degrees in the magnetic course determined from a plotting chart and that reported in a computer flight plan. The magnetic variation changes over the years and your chart may be dated or hasn't been updated with the correct variation.
There are many ways to turn a VOR radial/DME into a latitude and longitude, the best of these may very well be inside your FMS. If you need to do this on a plotting chart, this method works well:
Figure: VOR/DME Plotting, (Eddie's notes)
If you are doing this to check the accuracy of your FMS, you might have easier tools at your disposal. More about this: Navigation Accuracy Check.
I think the practical answer to the "when do I have to plot?" question is whenever you don't have a backup to the space-based and inertial-based navigation. There used to be an actual answer in writing:
[FAA Order 8900.1 OUTDATED VERSION Volume 4, Chapter 1, Paragraph 4-80.A]
What is the service volume of a navigation aid?
Figure: Standard High Altitude Service Volumes (Aeronautical Information Manual, Figure 1-1-1.)
You could have a navaid tuned and identified far outside its service volume, which means it doesn't count when making the plot / don't plot decision. Typical service volumes from [Aeronautical Information Manual, ¶1-1-8:
So the service volume of a qualified navaid answer isn't binding anymore, but it gives you an idea where you really should be plotting. (I like my earlier answer better.)
I often hear from crews that want reassurance that there is no need to plot the routes between California and Hawaii because they are fixed and appear on their charts. They are wrong.
They are much more than 725 nm outside the service volume of the nearest navigation aid, they have to (and should) plot.
A liberal reading of AC 91-70B would lead you to believe that doing all of your "plotting" on the aircraft's navigation display should be adequate:
[AC 91-70B, ¶6.3.2.6.3] You can use various additional techniques in order to verify that the correct points are loaded for your planned route. Verify the total route distance in your FMS against your master document to help find embedded mistakes. You should also cross-check course/headings and distances between each waypoint to ensure the FMS routing matches your master document. Referencing your plotting or orientation chart here can also be beneficial.
[AC 91-70B, ¶D.2.9.2] Ten Minutes After Waypoint Passage. Cross-check navigational performance and course compliance by one of the following methods:
D.2.9.1 The “plotting” method is appropriate for all aircraft navigation configurations.
D.2.9.2 The “navigation display” method is appropriate for and available for use in aircraft equipped with an operable FMS:
After investigating a GNE in response to an FAA inquiry in 2005, I asked if this method of plotting was adequate and was told no. As late as 2018 I asked members of the FAA navigation branch and was told the same thing. You should not simply look at the navigation displays and see that your airplane is where it is supposed to be and consider your plotting chores complete. But you don't have to resort to a paper plotting chart, a plotter, and a sharp pencil. There are other methods that are easier and more accurate . . .
There are a few different ways to plot with an iPad, some good and some bad. But before we cover that, we need to cover something most of us have ignored since we got our very first iPad . . .
Operating an iPad and a portable GPS receiver that is independent of the aircraft systems would seem to be the ideal crosscheck of your aircraft avionics. But is it legal? The basic regulation seems to indicate that it is, provided you can determine the device in question "will not cause interference with the navigation or communication system" of your aircraft. But how can you make that determination?
These rules were established in 1961 but were relaxed considerably in 2000 and again in 2006 with the release of Advisory Circular 91-21.1B which gave operators the latitude to allow the use of non-transmitting Personal Electronic Devices (PEDs) and gave some guidance on Transmitting PEDs and Medical PEDs. Operators were also given guidance on how to make these determinations. But no guidance was given for PEDs that receive GPS signals.
The latest version of AC 91.21-D cleared a lot of this up. The basic rule is that if your aircraft was certified with an onboard WiFi system, you are considered "PED Tolerant." Otherwise, you either have to get them tested (very hard to do) or restrict your use to ground taxi operations and cruise flight above 10,000 feet (easy to do).
So for the purpose of oceanic operations and plotting, the iPad and even a portable GPS unit are generally okay. (Operating commercially, you will need OpsSpec/MSpec/LOA A061.) If you are using your iPad (or other Electronic Flight Bag hardware) to view your airfield diagram during taxi, that's okay too. But if you want to use these devices for takeoff and landing, you have more work to do. More about all of this: Portable Electronic Devices.
If you are flying something that was certified relatively recently, you may find the aircraft's PED tolerance explicitly stated. This for the Gulfstream GVII-G500:
Photo: GVII-G500 PED Tolerance, from its Type Data Certification Sheet.
Click photo for a larger image
So if you are flying a GVII-G500, you are good to go. Most aircraft certified more than 5 years ago, such as my trust Gulfstream G450, will not have this statement. But that doesn't mean you are not PED tolerant, as we shall now see.
[AC 91.21-1D, ¶7.2.1] Aircraft Designed and Certified PED Tolerant. Aircraft manufacturers with access to aircraft electronic system qualifications and aircraft radio receiver antenna installation data can easily demonstrate an aircraft meets the requirements of RTCA DO-307A. Operators may obtain statements of such demonstrations from an aircraft manufacturer to substantiate PED tolerance of the aircraft. Operators can also use the RTCA DO-307A methods in demonstrating PED tolerance of their aircraft. RTCA DO-307A separates demonstration methods for tolerance to intentional transmissions from PEDs versus tolerance to spurious emissions from PEDs. Aircraft with an FAA-approved system—such as an Onboard Mobile Telecommunications System (OMTS), Wireless Fidelity (WiFi), airborne access systems (AASs), or Network Control Units (NCUs)—are considered PED-tolerant for PEDs used with the installed system. If an aircraft model has demonstrated tolerance for both transmitting and non-transmitting PEDs, the operator may allow PED use during all phases of flight on this aircraft model.
If your aircraft is certified with one of the listed systems (OMTS, WiFi, or AAS), then you are "PED Tolerant" and can use PEDs during all phases of flight. Of course you will have a few precautions to take, like turning the cellular system off by using "Airplane" mode and making sure it is properly stowed for takeoff and landing, but you can use it in the cockpit for all phases of flight.
[AC 91.21-1D, ¶7.2.2] Aircraft Not Designed and Certified PED Tolerant. An operator may choose to conduct a safety risk assessment following the process in RTCA DO-363 if it 1) does not have a designed and certified PED-tolerant aircraft, and 2) chooses not to test its aircraft fleet types according to RTCA DO-307A or obtain supporting documentation from an aircraft manufacturer. The operator’s assessment must evaluate the avionics configuration of its fleet and failure modes of communication, navigation, surveillance, and other electronic systems with respect to electromagnetic interference. This assessment ultimately outlines mitigations and controls the operator needs to adopt to expand PED use into various phases of flight.
There are two phases to the risk assessment, as outlined in InFO 13010 Sup: "Back door" and "front door" assessment. "Back door coupling" refers to intentional radio frequency emissions from transmitting PEDs which can interfere with aircraft systems. Appendix B of InFO 13010 Sup provides instructions on how to determine if an analysis must be performed. Many aircraft have the necessary statement in their Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS) that allow them to assume the back door assessment is already completed. The front door assessment is much harder to determine and most operators will not be able to obtain such an assessment on their own.
[AC 91.21-1D, ¶7.2.3] Aircraft Not Demonstrated PED Tolerant. If the operator has not demonstrated PED tolerance for their aircraft, they may allow PED operation during cruise flight. If interference to aircraft systems from PEDs is experienced during cruise flight, the devices causing interference should be isolated, and applicable conditions recorded. The device responsible for the interference should be turned off.
Unless your aircraft is PED tolerant or you have done an RTCA DO-363 risk assessment, this is what you are left with: you can only allow PED use during cruise flight.
[AC 91.21-1D, ¶8.1] Operator Procedures. If an operator allows PEDs aboard its aircraft or the aircraft being operated, procedures should be established to control PED use during aircraft operations. RCTA DO-363 section 7.5 and InFO 13010SUP provide further guidance on what to include in the operator’s policies, procedures, and training programs. In general, the procedures should address:
[AC 91.21-1D, ¶8.2] Passenger Communication. This paragraph outlines methods to inform passengers of permissible times, conditions, and limitations of PED usage. These methods may be accomplished through the departure briefing; passenger information cards; flightcrew, flight attendant (F/A), or prerecorded announcements; or other methods deemed appropriate by the operator. Operators should inform passengers of PED use restrictions, such as prior to departure, after takeoff (at 10,000 feet), prior to landing (at 10,000 feet), and after landing. For air carrier operations conducted under part 121 or 135, the limitations, at a minimum, should state the use of all such devices—except medical electronic devices such as heart pacemakers or portable oxygen concentrators (POC)—is prohibited during phases of operation when they could interfere with communication or navigation equipment onboard the aircraft or the ability of the flightcrew to give instructions in the event of an emergency. Methods of passenger communication may include:
[AC 120-76D, ¶12] A part 91K, 121, 125, or 135 operator must have an EFB program authorized by the FAA in order to use EFB applications on either portable or installed equipment in flight operations. EFB program specifics (i.e., operating procedures, maintenance procedures, administrative procedures, and training modules) must be developed, as applicable, and be available to the FAA. FAA authorization for an EFB program will be granted upon successful evaluation of an applicant’s program operation.
It is up to the operator to determine if you can use that iPad and portable GPS during cruise flight, taxi before takeoff, and taxi after landing. Under 14 CFR 91K, 121, and 135, the operator is the company that controls the operation and have a program "authorized by the FAA" usually with OpSpec/MSpec/LOA A061. Under 14 CFR 91, it is you, the pilot.
There are various vendors out there that will sell you a PDF chart the day of your flight that already has the relevant oceanic tracks plotted. Alternatively, some vendors will sell you a chart without the tracks for a little less money. In either case, it is up to you to plot your course, ETPs, and all other items just as you would on paper. This would seem to be the easiest way to transition from paper to plastic since you are doing the same thing only on an iPad. It is actually very difficult and frustrating for reasons that I hope to make clear.
Photo: Completed oceanic plotting chart example, annotated with GoodReader. (Click image for full size)
This method is easy enough but there are a few things that may not be entirely intuitive. Here are a few pointers:
Photo: iPad course measuring
Photo: Makeshift iPad dividers
This method of plotting on a PDF works but it isn't very accurate. Getting courses and distances will take a fair amount of time and can be frustrating. Placing your finger or stylus on exactly an exact latitude/longitude isn't easy. If you have access to a charting application, that is definitely easier, faster, and more accurate.
The remaining steps, such as plotting your position or doing a navigation accuracy check, are completed as you would with paper, just using the same steps to plot your route. We used this method for a few months in parallel with paper procedures. Paper was consistently faster.
I first looked into this in in 2015 and fully examined the process for a speech I gave to the 2019 NBAA International Operators Conference. The software I used was ForeFlight, Garmin Pilot, and JeppFD. Since then, several others have come on market that are quite good. In fact, I now use ARINCDirect exclusively because it is so much better. But that is a pricey program and they offer specific training should you decide to go that route. I'll detail the process for ForeFlight and JeppFD to show generally how it is done. You should look for application-specific instructions. (Even for the ones I am showing here, as they are sure to have improved since 2019.)
As international pilots we all have an intuitive understanding of geographic coordinates from the days of Ferdinand Magellan:
More about this: Coordinates.
It is important to know which method your FMS, your Master Document, and your plotting software are using. You can not mix one method with the other without first doing some math or implementing provided translators. Let's say your Master Document show s your ETP is at N53°05.30, using the same format that your FMS uses, HDD°MM.dd. But now let's say your plotting software uses HDD.dddd. If you type in N53.0530, that will translate to N53°08.83.
You can do the math on your own if you have no other choice. To convert decimal values into minutes or seconds, multiply by 60. For example, the .83 minutes in the last example become (0.83) x (60) = 50 seconds. To convert seconds or minutes into decimal values, divide by 60. So 50 seconds becomes (50) / (60) = .83 minutes.
If you plotting application uses HDD.dddd, there is probably a way to automatically convert your inputs. In ForeFlight, for example, you can have it automatically change all your inputs into the needed NDD.dddd through the settings tab. Or you can have it make the conversion if you follow a particular format. Typing in your coordinate in the format HDDDMMS tells it your are using degrees, minutes, and decimal minutes. ForeFlight will do the translation for you, but when you examine the same point it will be in HDD.dddd format.
If you are using an interactive application to produce your plotting chart, you can cut and paste the route from either the application's master document or the PDF version of the master document. Press and hold any portion of the route until at least a portion of the route appears in inverse video. Then drag the start and end handles until the entire route is highlighted. Then select "Copy." You then go to the plotting application to the route entry appears, press and hold until you see a "paste" button.
To cut and paste your routing into ForeFlight you will first have to export the master document PDF file into ForeFlight. From that point you select the file from the bottom Documents tab.
At this point you select and copy the route as shown above under "Using an interactive application" by pressing on a part of the route, extending the copy handles until the route is highlighted, and the select "Copy" from the pop up menu.
Now select "FPL" from the top menu, "Clear" the old route if necessary, and then press and hold the Search window on top. You should be presented with the text you just copied, press to select.
The result should be your copied route.
Once you've entered the route, pressing the FPL button brings up the flight plan which includes headings and distances:
Notice that this brings up headings not the courses. If ForeFlight has or has recently had access to the Internet, it will automatically download the winds and you will not be able to display courses. To get around this, tap the "Edit" button below the legs, then look for either "ETD" or a time which indicates the ETD. Tap the ETD and you will see a calendar. If you select a date at least 7 days away, the winds are zeroed and the NavLog will then display "CRS" which is the Magnetic Course:
This works, but remember it isn't the True course, it is Magnetic. That should not be a problem since your FMS will most likely be using Magnetic as well.
You will need to enter at least one Equal Time Point (ETP), possibly a Point of Safe Return (PSR), and you may want to enter other points onto the chart that should not appear as routing waypoints.
Press and hold a point on the route near the desired point. Select "More" on the location line and then "Save."
From the next menu give the ETP a suitable name, correct the latitude and longitude. The default format probably isn't what you want: degrees.decimal degrees. To automatically enter degrees, minutes, and decimal minutes, use the format HDDDMMS, i.e., N53259 or W036406. (Latitude degrees must be in two digits, longitude degrees must be three digits.) However you enter it, it will be converted to degrees and decimal degrees.
The resulting point is given within a triangle above a flag.
Using two fingers (using two hands makes this easier), simultaneously press the applicable VOR and the approximate aircraft position, fine tune the VOR position so it is exact, adjust the other until the radial and DME agree with your raw data, release both fingers. The resulting point should be right on the course line. This will not work, however, if you have been cleared direct off the projected course line. If you have a portable GPS linked to the iPad, you can work around this:
The blue orb is the aircraft position derived from the portable GPS unit. For more about how to use a portable GPS, see: Will a Portable GPS Unit Help?
Post-position plots in ForeFlight are entered just as you would any other user non-routing point with a suitable name, as shown earlier with ETPs or PSRs.
If you are using an interactive application to produce your plotting chart, you can cut and paste the route from either the application's master document or the PDF version of the master document. Press and hold any portion of the route until at least a portion of the route appears in inverse video. Then drag the start and end handles until the entire route is highlighted. Then select "Copy." You then go to the plotting application to the route entry appears, press and hold until you see a "paste" button.
You can paste the copied route into JeppFD by pulling down the Flight Plan bar, selecting "New," tapping the route window once, and then pressing and holding until the "paste" icon comes up.
The plotter icon in the tool bar shown on the right brings up an electronic plotter that you can position over a waypoint, resizing as necessary. With a steady hand, you should be able to get a course withing a few degrees accuracy. The distance, however, is hard to get within 20 nm.
You can work around this by inserting a new route from one waypoint to the next. Be sure you save your flight plan first, as doing this will erase it from the display. Step by step: select the flight plan menu, save the flight plan, select "new flight" and type in the two waypoints in the route window. The distance appears on the top left of that window.
An even better solution will cost you $7.99 but is an app well worth having: FlyBy E6B. Simply select "Navigation" and then "Track and Distance" to get the following:
Note that the line that says "GC Track= 68.1° -> 76°M" appears to be saying the true course is 68.1° and the magnetic course is 76° but that isn't the case. The first number is the course leaving the first waypoint and the second is the course arriving at the second waypoint. If you leave the "Var:" entry at zero both numbers represent True courses and if you enter the magnetic variation both numbers are Magnetic courses.
To enter a non-routing point in JeppFD, press a point in the approximate position, enter a suitable name, and then fine-tune the latitude and longitude. Do not press "Add To Route" or "Direct To" but do press "Done."
Make note of your aircraft's position by recording the latitude and longitude from the FMS while simultaneously making note of the VOR radial/DME. Create a user waypoint using these coordinates. Press the electronic plotter icon in JeppFD and move the plotter so it is precisely above the VOR. The user waypoint should be on the recorded radial and DME.
Photo: Two-degree check entered manually into JeppFD
Making a post-position plot using JeppFD with the iPad is quite easy. You derive the coordinates from your FMS and then press the course line in the approximate position. Then it is just a matter of correcting the approximate latitude and longitude with exact numbers and pressing "done."
Will a portable GPS unit help? Most definitely.
Is it legal? Yes, a portable GPS is allowed as just another PED. Commercial operators will need A061 OpSpec/MSpec/LOA approval, see: Personal Electronic Devices (PEDs). Some models can be linked to multiple iPads via a Bluetooth connection. These provide the best possible post-position plots and can be invaluable backups when things go wrong.
We have three. We normally use the Bad Elf GPS, available for about $200. (Amazon.) It seems to come up more quickly than the others and pairing to multiple iPads isn't a problem. Our backup is the Dual XGPS, which costs about $100. (Amazon. It doesn't seem to come up as quickly and every now and then it refuses to pair without rebooting the iPad. But it is cheap and having a backup seemed the prudent thing to do. We also carry a Garmin GDL 50 Portable ADS-B Receiver. It costs around $600. (Amazon) This offers us emergency navigation and attitude information in case we have greater problems than plotting.
For the Bad Elf, as an example, Bluetooth pairing procedures are conventional. Simply turn the unit on, go to the Settings / Bluetooth menu on the iPad and pair. You may have to wait a few minutes for the unit to find the required number of satellites. Once that is done, you should see an airplane symbol on your charting applications.
Photo: Example post-position plot using JeppFD and a portable GPS unit.
Click photo for a larger image
I've heard the argument that using a completely independent GPS violates the intent of AC 91-70B, ¶D.2.9.1, which says the plotting procedures should be made by using the "nonsteering LRNS." In my opinion this is nonsense. First, if your LRNS uses blended positions from GPS-updated IRUs, this is hardly an independent source. Second, how can you check the performance of one GPS using another GPS which uses much of the same hardware? I think using a portable GPS unit to display aircraft position on your iPad charting application is more accurate and offers an independent GPS source.
I believe you can simply check the GPS position on your iPad as an adequate position plot. Simply do a screen grab by pressing the "Home" and power buttons simultaneously to turn what you see into a photo. In the photo above, we plotted the position and waited a minute to allow the aircraft symbol to pass the plotted marker. Notice how both the plot and aircraft symbol are two miles right of course, because we had a 2 nm SLOP.
I think if you take care to ensure your cleared oceanic route is entered accurately into your plotting application, and if you diligently monitor the GPS symbol while doing screen grabs when plotting procedures call for them, you will not only be safer by ensuring you are on course, you will also be able to produce better position plots than manual methods will provide. You just need to make sure you carry out other oceanic record keeping duties, specifically with the Master Document. . . .
You can buy perfectly good portable GPS units for less than $200 that will do a great job with plotting and we've done that. But you might also consider a portable ADS receiver with GPS. That will give you the same benefits plus a way of having a backup FMS and Attitude and Heading Reference System. That way if your cockpit avionics decide to take a vacation while you are halfway across the Atlantic, you will have a way of keeping the aircraft right-side-up as well as finding your divert airport.
Photo: On final approach, KBED RNAV Rwy 23, a view from ForeFlight using a Garmin GDL52 portable ADS receiver
Click photo for a six minute video of the approach
The video shown is using a Garmin GDL52, which cost us about $600. We paired it with our iPads and used ForeFlight to display the AHRS. You should get to know the system before you need it. The receiver unit needs to be placed on a fairly flat surface and generally facing forward. The resulting AHRS will be shown using ground speed, not indicated, and GPS altitude, not barometric. But that is a lot better than nothing!
An additional benefit is that if you don't have a moving map display capable of showing your aircraft position, the setup shown with ForeFlight will do that for you. And if you don't have ADS-B In, this unit gives you that capability to display air traffic ID, altitudes, and vectors.
Plotting procedures are designed to ensure you are on course. The traditional method with paper uses the master document as a check on your navigation method (usually a Flight Management Computer, FMC, or Flight Management System, an FMS). Even using an iPad and a portable GPS, the master document is still needed, as should be self evident with the procedures that follow.
The master document process depends on what applications you are using, but it is important to remember that you can only have one master document. If you are using ARINCDirect or another application that allows you to sync between iPads, you can have a single master document that will have each person's entries in different colors. If you do not have this capability, you can designate one pilot to control the master document as provided in an Adobe PDF format using Adobe Acrobat Reader or other application.
Depending on the application, typing involves selecting an "edit" icon or pen, selecting a color and/or font, selecting an area on the document, and typing using the provided keyboard. (You can also use a physical keyboard to the iPad using a Bluetooth connection.)
Photo: Typing on the iPad master document using Adobe Acrobat Reader
If you are transposing from a data link clearance, retyping onto the iPad is certainly neater and easier to read after the fact. If, on the other hand, you are recording from a clearance given over the radio, this could mean an extra step having to write the clearance on a notepad first.
Photo: iPad master document, front page, paper
You can also handwrite on the iPad using a stylus or even the tip of your finger. We find the typing option easier for most tasks. The "X" diagonals on each waypoint shown here were hand drawn.
Photo: iPad master document, oceanic page, paper
You may have a number of checklists that require various entries for your oceanic flights. If so, you need only reproduce those in PDF form and then you can annotate them as shown for the master document. Here is an example from several years back:
Photo: Oceanic checklist and RVSM/Nav performance log example, iPad.
Our iPad version of this checklist is the same as the paper version and entries can be made by drawing, such as the check marks, or by typing. Here again the iPad version can be neater and offers better archival options. But once again it takes a little longer.
We have since weaved this checklist into our master document. So even in our quest to rid ourselves of paper, we managed to reduce the total number of documents too.
You can easily save six months of records on your iPad but it would be better to save them someplace more secure and redundant. As with the other questions, the solution depends on your international trip planner or the applications you've invested in.
Depending on what you have, archiving can be easy:
The following is extracted verbatim from Andreas Horn's exceptional pilot vlog Engineering Pilot.
[Horn]
Photo: Data promulgation flow from state to aircraft, Horn, figure 3.
Click photo for a larger image
Andreas provides an example of critical data in an RNP approach which encodes several segments into values which are added up to produce a "Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)" value. The discussion is a bit technical and I encourage you to read his article in full if you are so inclined.
While there are certainly other software packages out there that are as good or even better than the ones I've mentioned, here are the ones I've used on my journey going from paper to plastic.
Photo: Adobe Acrobat Reader, from Apple App Store
Available at: ARINCDirect
The Adobe Acrobat Reader is free and provides a way of making notes, drawing lines, and adding check marks to your Master Document, plotting charts, and various checklists. The drawing tool is found by pressing the "pen" tool and then selecting "Comment." It simply draws a line where you drag your finger, isn't very precise, and doesn't offer special figures or ways to ensure the lines are straight. You might not need it if, like me, your other applications allow you to make annotations directly.
Photo: ARINCDirect screen shot, from Eddie's iPad.
Available at: https://direct.arinc.net
The application itself is free if you have an ARINCDirect account. The price of that account varies depending on what you use them for. We use them for as much as we can, to include flight planning and aircraft phone service. I think we average between $300 and $500 a month. This program does everything well except plotting. They say they will have an upgrade that solves that deficiency. Until then, this application with JeppFD can be everything you need to go paperless when oceanic.
The program operates seamlessly with their web-based application and their Flight Operations System (FOS) scheduling software. Depending on your airplane and subscription, the flight can be built automatically in FOS and sent to ARINCDirect and your aircraft FMS. You download the flight plan into your FMS and iPad. You then have a master document ready for annotations.
Photo: DropBox screen shot, from Eddie's iPad.
Available at: https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/dropbox/id327630330?mt%3D8.
The application is free but there are additional charges for more storage space. You can simply email all your documents for a perfectly adequate way of archiving your oceanic paperwork, but DropBox makes this process easier. It is also a good way to have a full set of manuals on the iPad. (We get the same utility from ARINCDirect.)
There are other file transfer utilities out there for the iPad that may have more features and might be easier to use. But I use DropBox for other things so it is easier for me to use it on the iPad too.
Available at: ForeFlight
This is a great tool for improving your situational awareness with terrain maps, synthetic vision, and weather flying domestically or oceanic. It is a pretty good oceanic plotter, however it has a strange quirk when it comes to measuring courses. (More about that below.)
Available at: https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/garmin-pilot/id340917615?mt=8 for $600 per year for the worldwide version.
This is another great tool for improving your situational awareness with terrain maps, synthetic vision, and weather flying domestically or oceanic. It does one thing better than JeppFD and ARINCDirect when plotting: it gives you true course, magnetic course, and leg distances on one screen. If your flight planning provider gives you only a PFD master document without any interactive tools, Garmin Pilot could be the app for you.
Photo: GoodReader screen shot, from Eddie's iPad.
Available at: GoodReader.
If you don't have an application that provides robust plotting and PDF comment tools, such as ARINCDirect and JeppFD, you will need a good PDF editing too. While the Adobe Acrobat Reader will do the job, it isn't very good at drawing lines. For that I recommend GoodReader.
Available at: https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/jeppesen-mobile-fd/id446912582?mt=8
Price: hard to say. I've had Jeppesen worldwide accounts in the past that ran around $13,000 per year for worldwide coverage that gave you four installations. If you don't need worldwide coverage it would be less. Now I run a flight operation that needs four installations for the aircraft alone (the data exists in four places for redundancy) and we have four pilots on top of that. So that runs around $38,000 per year. The airplane can't fly without it so we don't have a lot of choice here.
If you fly internationally as a non-military U.S. pilot, there is no substitute for Jeppesen charts. The only drawback with JeppFD is the course and distance measuring tools are crude. (More about that below.)
Aeronautical Information Manual
14 CFR 1, Title 14: Aeronautics and Space, Definitions and Abbreviations, Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation
14 CFR 91, Title 14: Aeronautics and Space, General Operating and Flight Rules, Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation
14 CFR 121, Title 14: Aeronautics and Space, Operating Requirements: Domestic, Flag, and Supplemental Operations, Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation
14 CFR 125, Title 14: Aeronautics and Space, Certification and Operations: Airplanes Having a Seating Capacity of 20 or More Passengers or a Maximum Payload Capacity of 6,000 Pounds or More; and Rules Governing Persons on Board Such Aircraft, Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation
14 CFR 135, Title 14: Aeronautics and Space, Operating Requirements: Commuter and On Demand Operations and Rules Governing Persons on Board Such Aircraft, Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation
47 CFR 22, Tile 47: Telecommunication, Federal Communications Commission
A Report from the Portable Electronic Devices (PED) Aviation Rule Making Committee (ARC) to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), September 30, 2013
Advisory Circular 91.21-1D, Use of Portable Electronic Devices Aboard Aircraft, 10/27/17, Department of Transportation
*Advisory Circular 91-70A, Oceanic and International Operations, 8/12/10, U.S. Department of Transportation
* This version of AC 91-70 has been superseded but it retained because it contains older guidance that helps place current guidance into perspective.
Advisory Circular 91-70B, Oceanic and International Operations, 10/4/16, U.S. Department of Transportation
Advisory Circular 120-76D, Authorization for use of Electronic Flight Bags, 10/27/17, Department of Transportation
Aeronautical Information Manual
Air Force Manual (AFM) 51-40, Air Navigation, Flying Training, 1 July 1973
Horn, Andreas, "Getting to the right place," 9 October 2019, Engineering Pilot.
ICAO Annex 4 - Aeronautical Charts, International Standards and Recommended Practices, Annex 4 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, July 2009
Information for Operators (InFO) 13010 Expanding Use of Passenger Portable Electronic Devices (PED), 10/31/13, U.S. Department of Transportation
Information for Operators (InFO) Supplement 13010, FAA Aid to Operators for the Expanded Use of Passenger PEDs, June 9, 2014, Department of Transportation
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